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{\bf \Large Complex Sentences}\\
{\bf 11-721: Grammars and Lexicons}\\
{\bf Fall Term 2008}\\
{\bf Lori Levin:} {\it lsl@cs.cmu.edu}
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\section{Introduction}

This document introduces you to the analysis of complex sentences
using three categories of constructions:\footnote{Related to, but not
exactly corresponding to, lexical rules, cyclic rules, and post-cyclic
rules in the old transformational grammar literature.}

\begin{enumerate}
\item transitivity alternations
\item embedding operations
\item long distance dependencies
\end{eunumerate}

Each construction is introduced in two ways:  an informal 
transformational analysis and a more formal analysis in Lexical
Functional Grammar.  

\section{Transitivity Alternations}

A transitivity alternations affect the expression of a verb's
arguments.  Transitivity alternations include:

\begin{itemize}
\item Changes in the mapping from semantic roles to grammatical
relations.

\item Addition or deletion of an argument.  
\end{itemize}

This document covers two transitivity alternations, passive and dative
shift.\footnote{See Beth Levin's book for a long catalogue of
transitivity alternations in English.  Formation of causative verbs is
important in many other languages, but is not covered here.}

\subsection{Passive}

Earlier in the semester, we came up with the following
characterization of passivization:

\begin{itemize}
\item Passive verbs are intransitive.

\item The argument that was the SUBJ of the active verb is either
unexpressed or OBL for the passive verb.

\item The argument that was the OBJ of the active verb is the SUBJ of
the passive verb.  
\end{itemize}

The following are examples of actives and passives in English.  

\enumsentence{
\item Sony interviewed Sam.
\item Sam was interviewed (by Sony).
\item I have weighed the apples.
\item The apples have been weighed. 
}

In LFG, passivization is a process that applies to lexical entries of
verbs.  Here are the lexical entries of {\it interview\/}, active and
passive:

\begin{verbatim}
interivew (active)
(^ PRED) = 'interview<  agent  patient >'
                        SUBJ   OBJ

interivew (passive)
(^ PRED) = 'interview<  agent  patient >'
                        OBL    SUBJ

\end{verbatim}

\subsection{Dative Shift}

Dative Shift applies to verbs that have agent, patient, and recipient
arguments.  It affects the expression of the patient and recipient
arguments.  

\enumsentence{
\item The teacher gave some books to the students.
\item The teacher gave the students some books.  
}

\begin{verbatim}
give 
(^ PRED) = 'give < agent  patient  recipient >'
                   SUBJ   OBJ      OBL


give 
(^ PRED) = 'give < agent  patient  recipient >'
                   SUBJ   OBJ2     OBJ
\end{verbatim}

Other verbs that undergo dative shift are {\it hand, send, pay\/} and
many others. 

\paragraph{What is an OBJ2?}  An OBJ2 is a noun phrase that appears
without a preposition.  It looks like an OBJ, but doesn't act like
one.  For example, it cannot become the subject of a passive.
Sentence~\ex{1} would be the passive of Sentence~\ex{0}b, where {\it
some books\/} is an OBJ2.  

\enumsentence{
\bad{*}Some books were given the students.}

\subsection{Interaction of Passive and Dative Shift}

Passive and Dative shift can interact to yield four lexical entries
for verbs like {\it give\/}.

\begin{verbatim}
The teacher gave some books to the students. 
(^ PRED) = 'give < agent  patient  recipient >'
                   SUBJ   OBJ      OBL


The teacher gave the students some books. 
(^ PRED) = 'give < agent  patient  recipient >'
                   SUBJ   OBJ2     OBJ

Some books were given to the students by the teacher. 
(^ PRED) = 'give < agent  patient  recipient >'
                   (OBL)  SUBJ      OBL


The students were given books by the teacher. 
(^ PRED) = 'give < agent  patient  recipient >'
                   (OBL)   OBJ2    SUBJ
\end{verbatim}

Notice that in the fourth lexical entry, the patient is an OBJ2, not
an OBJ, even though there is no other OBJ.  This is because it still
does not act like an OBJ.  For example, Van Valin describes some
languages in which verbs agree with OBJ.  In most of these languages,
the verb would not agree with the patient argument of a passive verb
with a recipient as subject.  

\section{Embedding Operations}



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