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%Slide0

\slidehead{Voice} 

``\ldots the role of the subject in the action expressed by
the verb'' (Schachter) e.g., active, passive. \\[10pt]

{\bf Japanese}, (from Jordan, {\it Japanese: The Spoken
Language\/}) \\[10pt]

\examples{
\item \longgloss {4}
{Sensei & ga & tomodati & o }
{teacher & {\sc subj} & friend & {\sc obj} }\\
\longgloss {2}
{yobi-masi-ta. & {\bf active}}
{call-{\sc formal}-{\sc past} & \ }\\
\nogloss
{{\it The teacher called (my) friend.}}

\item \longgloss {4}
{Tomodati & wa & sensei & ni}
{friend & {\sc top} & teacher & {\sc dat}}\\
\longgloss{2}
{yob-are-masi-ta. & {\bf passive}}
{call-{\sc pass}-{\sc formal}-{\sc past}}\\
\nogloss
{{\it (My) friend was called by the teacher.}}}

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\slidehead{Passive Across Languages}

\noindent
{\bf Nitinaht}, (Wakashan, British Columbia).  From
Perlmutter and Postal.

\begin{verbatim}
ch'ixwatsa?p ?a   ox    bowach  
frighten     aux  case  deer    

?aq ?oyoq Ralph.
the case  Ralph

``The deer frightened Ralph.''

ch'ixwatsa?ab't  ?a  ox   Ralph 
frighten-pass    aux case Ralph 

?oxwit    bowach ?aq.
case-pass deer   the

``Ralph was frightened by the deer.''
\end{verbatim}

\newpage

\noindent
{\bf Mandarin}. From O'Grady et al.

\begin{verbatim}
Zhu laoshi    piye le wode kaoshi.
Zhu professor marked  my   test
``Professor Zhu marked my test.''

Wode kaoshi bei   Zhu laoshi    piye le.
my   test   prep. Zhu professor marked
``My test was marked by Professor Zhu''
\end{verbatim}

\newpage

\noindent
{\bf Malagasy}. Austronesian, Madagascar. From Perlmutter and Postal.

\begin{verbatim}
Nividy ny  vary  ho  an'ny ankizy  
bought the rice  for the  children 

ny  vehivavy.
the woman

``The woman bought the rice 
for the children.''

Novidin'    ny  vehivavy 
bought-pass the woman    

no  an'ny ankizy   ny  vary.
for the   children the rice

``The rice was bought 
for the children by the woman.''
\end{verbatim}

\newpage

\noindent
{\bf Latin}.  From Perlmutter and Postal.

\begin{verbatim}
Magister    puero:s    laudat.
teacher-nom boys-acc   praise
``The teacher praises the boys.''

Pueri:    a:    magistro:   laudantur.
boys-nom  prep. teacher-abl praise-pass
``The boys are praised by the teacher.''

a:    magistro:   pueri:    laudantur.
prep. teacher-abl boys-nom  praise-pass
``The boys are praised by the teacher.''
\end{verbatim}

\noindent
{\bf Tzotzil}, Mayan, Mexico.  From O'Grady et al.

\begin{verbatim}
La' sna'kan ti  vi~nike ti  xpe'tule.
seated      the man     the Peter
``Peter seated the man.''

Ina'kanat  ti  vi~nike yu?un ti  xpe'tule.
seat-pass  the man     prep. the Peter
``The man was seated by Peter.''
\end{verbatim}

\newpage

\noindent
{\bf West Greenlandic Eskimo}.  From Perlmutter and Postal.

\begin{verbatim}
Gimmi-p  miiraq    kiivaa.
dog-erg  child-abs bite
``The dog bit the child.''

Miiraq    gimmi-mik  kiitsippuq.
child-abs dog-instr  bite-pass
``A child has been bitten by a/the dog.''
\end{verbatim}

\noindent
{\bf Icelandic}, a Germanic language.  From Zaenen and Maling.

\begin{verbatim}
Logreglan   tok  Siggu     fasta.
police-nom  took Sigga-acc fast-acc
``The police arrested Sigga.''

Sigga     var tekin fost     af logreglunni.
Sigga-nom was taken fast-nom p. police-the-dat
``Sigga was arrested by the police.''
\end{verbatim}

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\slidehead{Cross Linguistic Generalization}

If all of the constructions illustrated above are so different, why do
we call them all passives? In other words, what do all of the passives
have in common?  Is it possible to explain what they have in 
common in terms of verb morphology, word order or case marking?


%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%

\slidehead{Uses of Passive}

\begin{itemize}
\item Focus on a participant other than the agent.
\item Make the sentence impersonal (doesn't matter who the agent is).
(Some languages have passives of intransitive verbs.)
\item Other uses, e.g., adversitive in Japanese.
\end{itemize}


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