Date: Mon, 13 Sep 93 21:54:24 CDT To: alsyll@lotka.Stanford.EDU From: "Leigh Tesfatsion" Subject: revised Alife Syllabus TO: alsyll@lotka.Stanford.EDU FROM: Leigh Tesfatsion DATE: 13 September 1993 SUBJECT: Revised Alife Syllabus The Alife Workshop is now up and running at Iowa State University. Word-of-mouth attendance was so good at the first "Introduction to Alife" meeting---twelve faculty and five students from computer science, electrical engineering, economics, math, math biology, philosophy, physics, psychology, and statistics---that we have now moved to a larger room and are adverstising the workshop more broadly. Below is a LaTeX-formatted and annotated Alife Syllabus, extensively revised from the last version I submitted to the alsyll list. Twenty-two readings have been selected for moderated discussion at future Alife Workshop meetings. Comments or suggestions for additional readings would be most appreciated. \documentstyle[12pt]{article} \setlength{\textwidth}{6.5in} \setlength{\oddsidemargin}{-.03125in} \setlength{\textheight}{8.5in} \setlength{\topmargin}{-.25in} \begin{document} \setlength{\baselineskip}{15pt} \renewcommand{\thefootnote}{\fnsymbol{footnote}} \begin{flushright} Leigh Tesfatsion \\ Department of Economics \\ Iowa State University \\ Ames, IA 50011-1070 \\ s1.tes@isumvs.iastate.edu\\ 11 September 1993 \end{flushright} \begin{center} {\large {\bf ARTIFICIAL LIFE AND NATURAL COMPUTATION}}% \footnote{This syllabus is based in part on alife syllabi prepared by Emanuel Gruengard of Bar-Ilan University, John Koza of Stanford University, and Martin Zwick of Portland State University, and on the FAQ in comp.ai.genetic prepared by Joerg Heitkoetter of the University of Dortmund.} \end{center} \vspace{3mm} Artificial life (Alife) is the ``bottom up'' study of basic phenomena commonly associated with living agents, such as self-replication, metabolism, morphogenesis, evolution, adaptation, self-organization, competition, parasitism, and mutual cooperation. Alife complements the traditional biological and social sciences concerned with the analytical and experimental study of living organisms by attempting to synthesize life-like behavior within computers and other artificial media. In addition to permitting new forms of controlled experimentation and testing of life processes, the alife approach has yielded robust ``natural'' computer algorithms for determining approximate solutions for difficult optimization problems characterized by high-dimensional search domains, nonlinearities, and/or multiple local optima. Three new journals that focus on these topics are: {\it Adaptive Behavior\/}, {\it Artificial Life\/}, and {\it Evolutionary Computation\/}. Other journals of interest include: {\it Artificial Intelligence\/}, {\it BioSystems\/}, {\it Complex Systems\/}, {\it IEEE Transactions on Neural Networks\/}, {\it IEEE Transactions on Systems, Man, and Cybernetics\/}, {\it IEEE Transactions on Robotics and Automation\/}, the {\it Journal of Evolutionary Economics\/}, the {\it Journal of Economic Behavior and Organization\/}, {\it Machine Learning\/}, {\it Neural Computation\/}, {\it Neural Networks\/}, {\it Robotica\/}, and {\it Theoretical Population Biology\/}. Suggested readings on both alife and natural computation are given below. \vspace*{4mm} \setlength{\baselineskip}{24pt} \begin{center} {\bf PART I. GENERAL INTRODUCTORY OVERVIEWS} \end{center} 1. J. S. Albus, {\it Brains, Behavior, and Robotics\/}, BYTE Books, a subsidiary of McGraw-Hill, 1988. 2. R. A. Brooks, ``Intelligence Without Representation,'' {\it Artificial Intelligence\/} 47 (1991), pp. 139-160. [Argues that intelligent behavior can be generated without having explicit manipulable internal representations.] 3. R. A. Brooks, ``Intelligence Without Reason,'' MIT AI Memo No. 1293, 1991, published in IJCAI-91 as ``Computers and Thought.'' [Argues that intelligence is an emergent property of certain complex systems and that it sometimes arises without an easily identifiable reason for arising.] 4. Richard Dawkins, {\it The Blind Watchmaker\/}, W.E. Norton, New York, 1987 [An enthusiastic defense of Darwin. Includes a description of Dawkins' Biomorf Program.] 5. Stephen Jay Gould, {\it Hen's Teeth and Horses Toes\/}, W. W. Norton and Co., 1983. [A collection of essays focusing on both the successes and the tribulations of evolutionary theory in the present century.] 6. Douglas Hofstadter and Daniel Dennett, {\it The Mind's I: Fantasies and Reflections on Self and Soul\/}, Bantam, Toronto, 1982 [Articles, stories and dialogues about the Mind/Body problem] 7. Christopher Langton, ``Introduction,'' pp. 3-23 in Christopher Langton, Charles Taylor, Doyne Farmer, Steen Rasmussen, eds., {\it Artificial Life II\/}, Addison-Wesley, California, 1992. [Overview and brief discussion of topics currently under investigation by Alife researchers.] 8. Steven Levy, {\it Artificial Life:The Quest for a New Creation\/}, Pantheon Books, NY, 1992 [A popular presentation on Alife, its objectives, its history, and the people involved.] 9. Marvin Minsky, {\it The Society of Mind\/}, Simon and Schuster, New York, 1986. [Explains by ``splinters'' of articles how the brain works by employing minute functional units that combine to an entity---the bottom-up approach.] 10. Heinz Pagels, {\it The Dreams of Reason: The Computer and the Rise of the Sciences of Complexity\/}, Simon and Schuster, New York, 1988 [Popular exposition of AI, Chaos Theory and the Mind/Body problem] 11. Erwin Schrodinger, {\it What is Life?\/}, Cambridge University Press (Canto), 1992 [A physicist's exploration of the question that lies at the heart of biology] 12. Alan Turing, ``Computing Machinery and Intelligence,'' {\it Mind\/} LIX, No. 236 (1950). [Turing's classic article proposing his famous test.] 13. M. Mitchell Waldrop, {\it Complexity\/}, Simon and Schuster, New York, 1992. [Popular account of the works and lives of various Santa Fe Institute researchers from a wide range of disciplines who share an interest in chemical, biological, and/or socio-econonomic systems consisting of large numbers of interconnected yet quasi-independent agents.] \begin{center} {\bf PART II: NATURAL COMPUTATION} \end{center} \vspace*{3mm} \noindent {\bf A. Genetic Algorithms and Evolving Rule Sets\/} \vspace{2mm} 1. Richard K. Belew, Lashon B. Booker, eds., {\it Proceedings of the Fourth International Conference on Genetic Algorithms\/}, Morgan Kaufmann, 1991. 2. K. A. De Jong, ``An Analysis of the Behaviour of a Class of Genetic Adaptive Systems,'' Doctoral Thesis, Department of Computer and Communication Sciences, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI, 1975. 3. Stephanie Forrest, ``Genetic Algorithms: Principles of Natural Selection Applied to Computation,'' {\it Science\/}, Vol. 261 (August 1993), 872-878. [A short clearly written introduction to GAs.] 4. Stephanie Forrest, ed., {\it Emergent Computation: Self-Organizing, Collective, and Cooperative Phenomena in Natural and Artificial Computing Networks\/}, The MIT Press, Cambridge, 1991. [Special issue of {\it Physica D\/}.] 5. David Goldberg, {\it Genetic Algorithms in Search, Optimization, and Machine Learning\/}, Addison-Wesley, Reading, 1989 [A textbook on the theory, operation, and application of GAs.] 6. J. Greffenstette, ``The Evolution of Strategies for Multiagent Environments,'' {\it Adaptive Behavior\/} 1 (1992), pp. 65-90. 7. W. D. Hillis, ``Co-Evolving Parasites Improve Simulated Evolution as an Optimization Procedure,'' pp.\ 313-324 in {\it Artificial Life II\/}, ed.\ by C.\ Langton, C.\ Taylor, J.\ D.\ Farmer, and S.\ Rasmussen, Addison-Wesley, Redwood City, CA, 1992. 8. John Holland, {\it Adaptation in Natural and Artificial Systems: An Introductory Analysis with Applications to Biology, Control, and Artificial Intelligence\/}, MIT Press/Bradford Books, Cambridge, 1992 (2nd edition). 9. J. H. Holland, ``Genetic Algorithms,'' {\it Scientific American\/} 260 (9) 1992, 44-51. 10. J. H. Holland, ``Complex Adaptive Systems,'' {\it Daedalus\/}, Winter, 121 (1) 1992, 17-30. 11. David J. Schaffer, ed., {\it Proceedings of the Third International Conference on Genetic Algorithms\/}, Morgan Kauffmann, 1989. \vspace*{3mm} \noindent {\bf B. Genetic Programming\/} \vspace{2mm} 1. John Koza, {\it Genetic Programming: On the Programming of Computers by Means of Natural Selection\/}, MIT Press, Cambridge, 1992. [Genetically breeding populations of computer programs to solve problems.] 2. John Koza, ``Genetic Evolution and Co-Evolution of Computer Programs,'' pp. 603-629 in {\it Artificial Life II\/}, edited by C. Langton, C. Taylor, D. Farmer, and S. Rasmussen, Addison-Wesley, California, 1992. \vspace*{3mm} \noindent {\bf C. Evolutionary Programming and Evolution Strategies\/} \vspace{2mm} 1. Thomas Back and Hans-Paul Schwefel, ``An Overview of Evolutionary Algorithms for Parameter Optimization,'' {\it Evolutionary Computation\/} 1 (1) 1993, 1-23. 2. David. J. Fogel, {\it System Identification Through Simulated Evolution: A Machine Learning Approach to Modeling\/}, Ginn, Needham Heights, MA, 1991. 3. R. Manner and B. M\"{a}nderick, eds., {\it Parallel Problem Solving From Nature\/}, Elsevier Science Publishers, Amsterdam, 1992. 4. H.-P. Schwefel, {\it Numerical Optimization of Computer Models\/}, Wiley, Chichester, 1981. \vspace*{3mm} \noindent {\bf D. Artificial Neural Networks\/} \vspace{2mm} 1. J. A. Anderson, A. Pellionisz, and E. Rosenfeld, eds., {\it Neurocomputing 2: Directions for Research\/}, MIT Press, Cambridge, 1990. [Sequel to the famous earlier volume {\it Neurocomputing: Foundations of Research\/} edited by Anderson and E. Rosenfield.] 2. W. Aspray and A. W. Burks, {\it Papers of John von Neumann on Computing and Computer Theory\/}, The MIT Press, Cambridge, 1987. 3. Maureen Caudill and Charles Butler, {\it Naturally Intelligent Systems\/}, MIT Press, Massachusetts, 1991. [A comprehensive and relatively nontechnical introduction to artificial neural networks. 4. Judith E. Dayhoff, {\it Neural Network Architectures: An Introduction\/}, Van Nostrand Reinhold, New York, 1990. 5. S. Grossberg, {\it The Adaptive Brain\/} (in two volumes), North-Holland, 1987. 6. R. Hecht-Nielsen, {\it Neurocomputing\/}, Addison Wesley, 1990. 7. John A. Hertz, Anders S. Krogh, and Richard G. Palmer, {\it Introduction to the Theory of Neural Computation\/}, Santa Fe Institute Studies in the Sciences of Complexity, Addison-Wesley, 1991. [Written by physicists.] 8. Hinton, G. E., ``How Neural Nets Learn from Experience,'' {\it Scientific American\/} Vol.\ 267, No.\ 3 (1992), 144-151. 9. G. E. Hinton, ``Connectionist Learning Procedures,'' {\it Artificial Intelligence\/}, Vol.\ 40 (1989), 185-235. [Reputed by the FAQ for comp.ai.neural to be one of the better neural network overview papers.] 10. K. Knight, ``Connectionist Ideas and Algorithms,'' {\it Communications of the ACM\/}, Vol.\ 33 (November 1990), 59-74. 11. T. J. Kohonen, {\it Self-Organization and Associative Memory\/}, Springer-Verlag, N.Y., Third Edition, 1989. 12. Y. H. Pao, {\it Adaptive Pattern Recognition and Neural Networks\/}, Addison-Wesley, 1989. [Ties together classical pattern recognition approaches with ANNs.] 13. Robert Rosen, ``Pattern Recognition in Networks,'' {\it Prog. Theor. Biology\/} 6 (1981), 161-209. [Reaction-diffusion systems] 14. D. E. Rumelhart, G. E. Hinton, and R. J. Williams, ``Learning Representations by Back-Propagating Errors,'' {\it Nature\/}, Vol.\ 323 (October 1986), 533-536. 15. D. Rumelhart and J. McClelland, eds., {\it Parallel Distributed Processing: Explorations in the Microstructure of Cognition\/} (in three volumes), MIT Press, Cambridge, 1986. \vspace*{3mm} \noindent {\bf F. Other Related Readings\/} \vspace{2mm} 1. John L. Casti, {\it Alternate Realities: Mathematical Models of Nature and Man\/}, John Wiley, New York, 1989. [Text on modelling theory providing an introductory coverage of cellular automata and discrete dynamics, catastrophe theory, chaos, evolutionary game theory, etc.] 2. Robert L. Devaney and Linda Keen, eds., {\it Chaos and Fractals\/}, Proceedings of the Symposia in Applied Mathematics, Volume 39, American Mathematical Society, 1989. 3. W. D. Hillis, ``The Connection Machine,'' {\it Scientific American\/} 255 (6), 1987. 4. W. D. Hillis, ``Massively Parallel Computing,'' {\it Daedalus\/}, Winter, 121 (1) 1992, 1-29. 5. Stephen Wolfram, ed., {\it Theory and Applications of Cellular Automata\/}, World Scientific, Singapore, 1986. [An anthology of articles dealing with Cellular Automata] \vspace*{4mm} \begin{center} {\bf PART III: EVOLUTIONARY MODELLING OF BIOLOGICAL SYSTEMS} \end{center} \vspace{3mm} \noindent {\bf A. Key Issues in Evolutionary Biology} \vspace{2mm} 1. Robert James Collins, ``Studies in Artificial Evolution,'' Ph.D. Dissertation, Artificial Life Laboratory, Department of Computer Science, UCLA, 1992. [Reputed to be the first Alife dissertation.] 2. Christopher Langton, ed., {\it Artificial Life\/}, The Proceedings of the 1987 Workshop in Los Almos, NM, Addison-Wesley, Redwood City California, 1989. [The proceedings of the first conference on Alife] 3. Christopher Langton, Charles Taylor, Doyne Farmer, Steen Rasmussen, eds., {\it Artificial Life II\/}, Addison-Wesley, California, 1992. [The proceedings of the second (1990) workshop on Alife.] 4. Christopher Langton, ed., {\it Artificial Life II, Video Proceedings\/}, Addison-Wesley, California, 1992. [An interesting video presentation of the second conference on Alife.] 5. Christopher Langton et al., eds., {\it Artificial Life III\/}, Volume 16, Santa Fe Institute Studies in the Sciences of Complexity, Addison-Wesley, 1993. [Proceedings of the third 1992 conference on Alife.] 6. Przemyslaw Prusinkiewicz and Aristid Lindenmayer, {\it The Algorithmic Beauty of Plants\/}, Springer-Verlag, New York, 1990 [Description of L-Systems, coupled with astounding pictures.] 7. Tom Ray, ``An Approach to the Synthesis of Life,'' pp. 371-401 in C. Langton, ed., {\it Artificial Life II\/}, {\it op. cit.\/}. 8. Francisco J. Varela and Paul Bourgine, eds., {\it Towards a Practice of Autonomous Systems\/}, MIT press, Cambridge, 1992. [The proceedings of the first European conference on Alife.] \vspace*{3mm} \noindent {\bf B. Game Theoretical Approaches to Evolutionary Biology} \vspace*{2mm} 1. W. G. Hines, ``Evolutionary Stable Strategies: A Review of Basic Theory,'' {\it Theoretical Population Biology\/} 31 (1987), pp. 195-272. [A survey of the biological literature focusing on ESS's as possible attractors of replicator dynamics, in which the rate of growth in the fraction of the population playing a particular strategy is equal to the deviation of that strategy's fitness or payoff from the average fitness or payoff.] 2. John Maynard Smith, {\it Evolution and the Theory of Games\/}, Cambridge University Press, United Kingdom, 1982. \vspace*{4mm} \begin{center} {\bf PART IV: EVOLUTIONARY SOCIO-ECONOMIC MODELLING} \end{center} \vspace{3mm} \noindent {\bf A. Adaptation, Learning, and Innovation in Socio-Economic Systems} \vspace{2mm} 1. P. W. Anderson, K. J. Arrow, and D. Pines, eds., {\it The Economy as an Evolving Complex System\/}, Sante Fe Institute, 1988. [Proceedings of the Global Economy Workshop held at the Santa Fe Institute in September, 1987.] 2. J. Arifovic, ``Learning by Genetic Algorithms in Economic Environments,'' Santa Fe Institute Working Paper No. 90-001, October, 1989. 3. W. Brian Arthur, ``Self-Reinforcing Mechanisms in Economics,'' pages 9-27 in P. W. Anderson et al., {\it op. cit.} [The role of increasing returns and other positive feedback mechanisms in socio-economic systems, leading to path-dependent outcomes.] 4. W. Brian Arthur, ``On Designing Economic Agents that Behave Like Human Agents,'' {\it Journal of Evolutionary Economics\/} 3 (1993), 1-22. [Calibrating models of human learning to natural and experimental data.] 5. S. Bowles and H. Gintis, ``The Revenge of Homo Economicus: Contested Exchange and the Revival of Political Economy,'' {\it Journal of Economic Perspectives\/} 7 (Winter 1993), 83-102, followed by comments by O. E. Williamson (pp. 103-108) and J. Stiglitz (pp. 109-114). 6. J. Foster, {\it Evolutionary Macroeconomics\/}, Unwin-Hyman, Boston, 1989. [A thoughtful critique of past and current macro analysis, and a proposed framework for evolutionary macro foundations allowing for time-varying structure.] 7. J. Hirshleifer, {\it Economic Behavior in Adversity\/}, The University of Chicago Press, Chicago, 1987. [Especially Part II: Cooperation and Conflict] 8. J. H. Holland, ``The Global Economy as an Adaptive Process,'' pages 117-124 in P. W. Anderson et al., {\it op. cit.}. [Includes brief summary of work on the Echo Model, a model of an evolving ecology in which agents engage in a variety of activities such as self-maintenance (consumption), trade, competition, and reproduction.] 9. J. Holland and J. Miller, ``Artifical Adaptive Agents in Economic Theory,'' {\it American Economic Review Papers and Proceedings\/} 81 (1991), 365-370. [Stresses need for endogenous learning and learning-to-learn mechanisms in socio-economic modelling as opposed to rational expectations assumptions.] 10. D. Lane, ``Artificial Worlds and Economics,'' Santa Fe Institute Working Paper No. 92-09-048, 1992. 11. B. Lippman, ``How to Decide How to Decide to...:Modelling Limited Rationality,'' {\it Econometrica\/} 59 (1991), pp. 1105-1125. 12. R. Marimon, E. McGrattan, and T. J. Sargent, ``Money as a Medium of Exchange in an Economy with Artificially Intelligent Agents,'' {\it Journal of Economic Dynamics and Control\/} 14 (1990), 329-373. 13. S. Moss and J. Rae, eds. {\it Artificial Intelligence and Economic Analysis\/}, Edward Elgar, Vermont, 1992. \vspace*{3mm} \noindent {\bf B. Evolutionary Game Modelling of Socio-Economic Systems\/} \vspace*{2mm} 1. R. Axelrod, {\it The Evolution of Cooperation\/}, Basic Books, N.Y., 1984. [Key study motivating much of the work on socio-economic systems currently under way at the Santa Fe Institute in Sante Fe, New Mexico.] 2. K. Binmore, ``Modelling Rational Players, Part I,'' {\it Economics and Philosophy\/} 3 (1987), 179-214, and ``Modelling Rational Players, Part II,'' {\it Economics and Philosophy\/} 4 (1988), 9-55. [Critical discussion of the strong informational assumptions imposed in traditional game theory in an attempt to explain directly, at the level of the individual, {\it which\/} of several equally plausible Nash equilibria a player will play.] 3. K. Binmore and L. Samuelson, ``Evolutionary Stability in Repeated Games Played by Finite Automata,'' {\it Journal of Economic Theory\/} 57 (1992), 278-305. 4. D. Friedman, ``Evolutionary Games in Economics,'' {\it Econometrica\/} 59 (1991), 637-666. 5. D. Hofstadter, ``Computer Tournaments of the Prisoner's Dilemma Suggest How Cooperation Evolves,'' {\it Scientific American\/} (May 1983), 16-26; and ``The Calculus of Cooperation is Tested Through a Lottery,'' {\it Scientific American\/} (June 1983), 18-28. 6. David M. Kreps, {\it Game Theory and Economic Modelling\/}, Clarendon Press, Oxford, 1991. [Basic game theory tools, illustrated graphically and by numerous examples, and the questions that these tools can and cannot answer.] 7. G. Mailath, ``Introduction: Symposium on Evolutionary Game Theory,'' {\it Journal of Economic Theory\/} 57 (1992), 259-277. 8. William Poundstone, {\it Prisoner's Dilemma: John von Neumann, Game Theory, and the Puzzle of the Bomb\/}, Double-Day, N.Y., c. 1992. [Intertwines the development of game theory, illustrated by clear insightful examples, with the biography of one of its founders, John von Neumann.] 9. A. Robson, ``Efficiency in Evolutionary Games: Darwin, Nash, and the Secret Handshake,'' {\it Journal of Theoretical Biology\/} 144 (1990), 379-396. 10. R. Selten, ``Evolution, Learning, and Economic Behavior,'' {\it Games and Economic Behavior\/} 3 (1991), pp. 3-24. [Nontechnical discussion of the degree to which the biological literature on ESS's is suited to the study of social phenomena.] 11. E. A. Stanley, D. Ashlock, and L. Tesfatsion, ``Iterated Prisoner's Dilemma with Choice and Refusal of Partners,'' pp. xx-xx in C. Langton, {\it Artificial Life III\/}, Vol. 16, Santa Fe Institute Studies in the Sciences of Compexity, Addison-Wesley, Redwood, CA, 1993. [How sensitive are evolutionary game outcomes to a change in the matching mechanism by which game partners are determined?] 12. J. B. Van Huyck, R. C. Battalio, and R. O. Beil, ``Tacit Coordination Games, Strategic Uncertainty, and Coordination Failure,'' {\it American Economic Review\/} (March 1990). \vspace*{4mm} \begin{center} {\bf PART V: CRITIQUES} \end{center} \vspace{3mm} 1. Valentino Braitenberg, {\it Vehicles and Experiments in Synthetic Psychology\/}, MIT Press, Cambridge, 1984. 2. Daniel C. Dennett, {\it Brainstorms: Philosophical Essays on Mind and Psychology\/}, Harvester Press, Sussex, 1979. 3. Hubert Dreyfus, {\it What Computers {\em Still\/} Can't Do, A Critique of Artificial Reason\/}, MIT Press, Cambridge, 1992. [A critique of the notion that human intelligence and machine intelligence can even be compared.] 4. Roger Penrose, {\it The Emperor's New Mind\/}, Oxford University Press, New York, 1989 (Paperback by Vintage Press, London, 1990). [A critique of the basic assumptions and objectives of the claims of strong AI.] 5. William S. Robinson, {\it Computers, Minds, and Robots\/}, Temple University Press, Philadelphia, 1992. 6. John Searle, {\it Mind, Brains, and Science\/}, Harvard University Press, Cambridge, Massachusettes, 1984 [Searle published his ``Chinese Test'' many times, in various publications. This booklet is his BBC lectures] 7. Joseph Weizenbaum, {\it Computer Power and Human Reason\/}, W. H. Freeman and Co., San Francisco, 1976 [Is it moral to engage in AI and Alife?] \pagebreak \vspace*{4mm} \begin{center} {\bf PART VI: COMPUTER PROGRAMS AND GAMES} \end{center} \vspace{3mm} 1. Thomas Ray, {\it Tierra\/}. [Life and death in a digital world. Survival of the fittest electronic organisms illustrate Darwinian principles, for MS/DOS and UNIX systems. Available from Virtual Life, P.O. Box 625, Newark, Delaware 19715. Specify 3.5" or 5.25" disks.] 2. John J. Grefenstette, {\it A User's Guide to GENESIS\/}, Navy Center for Applied Research in Artificial Intelligence, Washington, D. C. 3. Larry Yaeger, {\it Polyworld Ecological Simulator\/}, c. 1992 by Apple Computer. [Described in {\it Artificial Life III\/}, op. cit., and available via anonymous ftp from ftp.apple.com in the directory ``/pub/polyworld''. Postscript files containing Yaeger's {\it Artificial Life III\/} paper are included in this directory.] 4. Joachim Stender, ed., {\it Parallel Genetic Algorithms: Theory and Applications\/}, IOS Press, 1992(?). [Provides an overview of the theoretical and practical aspects of PGAs. The book comes with a floppy disk version of GAME: Genetic Algorithm Manipulation Environment. The disk contains the C++ source code for the sequential version of the GAME Virtual Machine.] 5. {\it Bugs\/} (Better to Use Genetic Systems), Autodesk; {\it Bugland\/}, Autodesk; and {\it Simulated Evolution\/}, Life science Associates. [Several graphics simulators of Darwinian evolution, based on A. K. Dewdney, ``Simulated Evolution, Wherein Bugs Learn to Hunt Bacteria,'' {\it Scientific American\/}, May 1989.] 6. Elwyn Berlekamp, John Conway and Richard Guy, {\it Winning Ways for Your Mathematical Plays\/}, Volume 2:Games in Particular, Academic Press, London, 1982. [An extensive discussion on the game of LIFE. Includes the proof on the universality computing power of LIFE] 7. William Poundstone, {\it The Recursive Universe\/}, Oxford University Press, Oxford, 1987 (Paperback). [A popular treatment of the game of LIFE.] 8. Richard Dawkins, {\it Blind Watchmaker\/}. [Darwinian selection thru electronic mutation. Original program for the Apple Macintosh. A simpler version for the IBM-PC, called Biomurffs by D. J. Murphy, exists for the PC] 9. Maxis Co., {\it SIM LIFE: The Genetic Playground\/}. [Building your own ecosystem. Experiment with extinction, mutation, disease, etc. Macintosh and PC versions with and without windows] 10. Maxis Co., {\it El-Fish\/}. [A highly graphical environmental electronic lab, for the PC.] 11. {\it James Gleick's Chaos: The Software\/}, Autodesk, 1991. 12. Bert Tyler et al., {\it Fractint\/}. [A comprehensive Fractal system that includes L-system as one of its components. For the PC] \end{document}