February 1991 Designed and produced by the Equal Employment Opportunities office Victoria University of Wellington ACKNOWLEDGENTS This booklet is not the first of its kind and we have drawn on three sources in compiling it: Monash University's Language Guidelines, The University of Western Australia's Guide to Achieving Non-Discriminatory Language and, in particular, Deakin University's Inclusive Language Guidelines. We thank the Equal Opportunity Coordinators at these universities for providing the guidelines. CONTENTS Introduction Guidelines for Nonsexist Language 1. The generic man man and men cliches and generalisations nationality man words which should stay as they are he, his, him 2. Job titles chairman excluding women in other job titles excluding men areas of difficulty 3. Irrelevant gender emphasis and stereotyping gender-linked prefixes and suffixes irrelevant gender references sex-linked adjectives stereotyping demeaning terms master and maiden 4. Status equivalent terms honorifics correspondence housewives 5. Illustrations and examples 6. References to animals and things 7. Direct quotation 8. Offensive expressions 9. Clayton's sexism References Appendices 1. Some useful references 2. Miller and Swift on the generic he Glossary of alternatives to sexist terms INTRODUCTION The aim of this booklet is to provide a set of guidelines to help university staff to avoid, in their spoken and written work, uses of language which may be sexist or which may gratuitously give offence. Such an aim rests on the belief that people should be treated equally and with courtesy; that communication is less effective if inaccuracy, irrelevance or apparent exclusion intrudes, and that the English language is rich in alternatives which speakers or writers sensitive to their audience can use without reducing the effectiveness of what they are saying or sacrificing their notions of grammatical propriety. It is well-known and accepted that language changes constantly in response to social needs. old words are lost, new ones are created and pass into common parlance. For example, the words thee and thou have dropped from general use, while words like space-shuttle and user-friendly have been coined to express new concepts and are now part of everyday vocabulary. Language changes rapidly to be able to describe developments in technology, but where social attitudes are involved, the content and use of language change more slowly. Recognition of the discriminatory implications of some linguistic conventions used in official university communications and in everyday speech leads to acceptance of the need for change and the development of satisfactory alternatives. Some people will undoubtedly find these recommendations to be trivial, but the issue is important to those who do feel excluded. Such conventions as are described below are of ten unthinkingly perpetuated and have become so deeply embedded in the language that it requires conscious effort to avoid them. Because the use of discriminatory language is often unthinking and the result of old habits which die hard, the use of as many examples as possible serves a consciousness raising function. The approach -- to support policy statements with copious examples -- has, accordingly, been followed in this booklet ... The requirements of Victoria University's policy on equal employment opportunity mean that the use of language which is discriminatory or sexist is not permissible. This document sets out in detail areas which need to be addressed, principles which should be followed, and suggests ways of writing which avoid discrimination. These principles should be followed in all written material emanating from the university. This is not to suggest, however, that all of the examples need to be slavishly followed in all circumstances, and individual authors will no doubt find their own ways of writing in a non-discriminatory fashion. The advantages of using nonsexist language are many. Often such usages are more logical than those they replace in that they do not build in false assumptions about the nature of women in society; more accurate in that they state more clearly exactly which people or concepts are meant; and more elegant in that they make it possible to avoid unnatural or forced expressions. Nonsexist language, properly used, conveys its meaning so clearly that the question of usage does not arise and the real purpose of the communication is achieved. It is particularly important that the university provides a model for students of precise and accurate use of the language as part of its fulfilment of its educational purpose. Half the student population is female, and their presence and experience should be acknowledged in language that does not exclude women. This booklet has been prepared in an effort to raise awareness of non-discriminatory forms of language and to foster wider use of them in both speech and writing in the university. Set out in the following pages are examples of forms that are imprecise or potentially offensive, and suggested alternatives. GUIDELINES FOR NONSEXIST LANGUAGE Success in developing forms of expression that are free of sexist, racist and other biases can be achieved by the observance of some simple considerations. These include the following: Avoidance of stereotypes Sensitive and appropriate use of language Consistent and fair use of personal titles and descriptions Recognition of performance and achievement irrespective of sex, race or other characteristics when they are irrelevant Reviewing materials and rephrasing where necessary to avoid potentially offensive or discriminatory forms 1 The Generic Man Man and men The word man has two meanings. one refers to all people as a species; the other to an adult male. The two meanings have become blurred, however, and to many people man does not clearly include women. It is therefore no longer useful as a generic term, and introduces ambiguity and uncertainty into the language. (If man were accepted as a true generic term the phrases "a man-eating lion with a taste for women" and "man breastfeeds his young" would not sound humorous.) False generic terms should not be used. In most cases it is easy to substitute expressions that do not exclude women, when it is intended that the reference include both women and men. Care should be taken that a relevant and accurate alternative is chosen. Example Possible alternative man people, humanity manpower labour, workforce man-made synthetic, artificial the common man the average person (See Glossary for more examples and possible alternatives) Cliches and generalisations There are other words or phrases containing man which sometimes overlook the contribution of women and the fact that they often have different experiences from men. For example, much historical writing suggests, by neglect, that women have made no contribution. Example Possible alternative pioneering fathers pioneering forebears founding fathers founders brotherhood of man humanity Cliched terms should be abandoned in favour of original thought, or reworded. Example Possible alternative man's best friend a faithful dog a man-sized task a demanding task Generalisations can contain the assumption that all women are the same, or exclude women. "Average person" is inclusive but "average man" is not. Similarly, "average wage earner" or "taxpayer" is preferable to "average working man". "Average consumer", "average household", "average homemaker" are better than "average housewife". Nationality Italians, Russians, Iranians, Pakistanis, New Zealanders, Japanese, to pick some random examples, can refer to either females or males. In contrast, terms like Englishmen, Frenchmen and Irishmen are ambiguous if used nonspecifically. "Englishmen are said to prefer tea to coffee" presumably means "The English are said to prefer tea to coffee" whereas "Englishmen founded the British Empire on the playing fields of Eton" is intended to refer to English males. Man words which should stay as they are There are some "man" words which do not need to be changed because they are not compounds incorporating the modern gender-specific word "man", e.g. manage, manufacturer, manuscript and manipulate all derive from the Latin "manus" meaning hand e.g. human which derives from the Latin humanus meaning human. He, his, him The main tradition has been to use the seemingly generic "he" to fill the place of a neutral third person singular pronoun, e.g. The best time to teach a child maths is when he is one or two years old. However, recent studies of how people of both sexes use and understand personal pronouns confirm that "he" is rarely intended or understood to include she (Miller and Swift, 1980). Children, in particular, interpret "he" quite literally (Marshall and Rowland, 1981). Examples of suggested alternatives Eire given below. Example Possible Alternative when a student enrols, when students enrol, they must ... must ... each contributor must each contributor must submit his abstract by submit an abstract by March March the person must exercise the person must exercise his right his or her right whenever a person says whenever a person says that he is innocent ... that they are innocent ... (Dickens) anyone who wants his anyone who wants their teaching evaluated should teaching evaluated should submit the enclosed submit the enclosed application by April 6 application by April 6 In other words, recast into plural eliminate unnecessary problems by eliminating the pronoun substitute "his or her", "he or she" for the masculine pronoun substitute they for "he" when the noun has an indefinite article indefinite nouns (anybody, somebody, nobody, etc.) may be followed by the pronoun they The use of "they" as a neutral singular pronoun is recommended as perhaps the most useful and natural alternative. (For those who may see such a suggestion as grammatical sacrilege, Miller and Swift's historical analysis, Appendix 3, provides convincing arguments to the contrary.) (See Glossary for more examples and possible alternatives) 2 Job Titles Chairman Miller and Swift (1980) give an excellent summary of the considerations relevant to this vexed and much misunderstood question. It is reproduced below: For some reason, what to call the person who heads an academic department or chairs a committee or meeting arouses great anxiety. "Chairman", according to the New York Times style manual, suffices for both sexes, and so the Times does not allow either "chairwoman" or "chairperson". The National Association of Parliamentarians takes the same position, as does a newly revised edition of "Robert's Rules of Order". However, others disagree, and for good reasons. According to the Oxford English Dictionary, "chairman" has been used since at least 1654 and "chairwoman" since 1699. In each of the seventeenth-century quotations the dictionary provides to illustrate the use of "chairman", the person referred to was clearly male, and none of the citations from later periods shows the use of this word for females. On the contrary, words like "gentlewoman", "countrywoman", "laywoman", and "stateswoman" were recognised counterparts to "gentleman", "countryman", "layman", and "statesman"; and women who worked as cleaners and launderers were called "charwomen"n, "washerwomen", and "scrubwomen", not "charmen", "washermen", or "scrubmen". Since the current aversion to using "woman" in compounds like "chairwoman" and "spokeswoman" cannot be attributed to lack of precedent, is there some other explanation? Perhaps "chairwoman" sounds less important and "spokeswoman" less authoritative than their masculine-gender counterparts. This could explain why some women who achieve positions of leadership still call themselves "chairmen", a term already invested with prestige and power by generations of male incumbents. Or could it be that at least some women go along with the unconscious desire of some men to keep terms like "chairman", "alderman", and "congressman" 'official', thereby guarding a traditional male bailiwick from outsiders? Whatever the reasons for its disfavour, "chairwoman" is a historically sound parallel to "chairman", and it pays a woman the courtesy of recognizing both her sex and her achievement. It does not, however, solve the problem of what to use as an indefinite, sex-inclusive title. In addition to the much maligned but persistent "chairperson", the term "chairer" has emerged, and some groups and institutions have chosen to use entirely different titles like "presider", "coordinator", "president", and "convener". A much more obvious solution is provided by the word "chair", which many national organizations and university departments have already adopted: "The new chair will take office at the annual meeting in May." "Witherspoon has been named chair of the English Department." "John Smith, Chair, Finance Committee." The lexicographer Alma Graham points out that chair has been recognized, in the sense of the occupant of the chair ... as invested with its dignity, since the seventeenth century, just as the crown has been used for the monarch or the oval Office has come to stand for the President of the United States. "Address your remarks to the chair" illustrates metonymy, a figure of speech in which something is called by the name of something else associated with it. Few people would understand an injunction to address the chair as an order to talk to a piece of furniture. (From: The handbook of nonsexist writing, by Casey Miller and Kate Swift, Lippincott & Crowell (1980), pp. 25-26.) Victoria University uses the terms "Chairperson" and "Chair" to describe the occupant of the position of head of an academic department, and the term "Convener" is often used for chairpersons of committees. Excluding women in other job titles In the same way that chairman is seen to exclude women who hold that position, women are often invisible in other occupational titles, despite their presence in a wide variety of industries and job. The paid workforce is still largely defined in male terms. There are alternatives to using man. Person is one, although it may sometimes be clumsy and not the best alternative. As women and men enter non-traditional occupations, job titles which are sex-specific become more unsuitable e.g. "mailman", "draughtsman", "Sister", "housemaid". Their continued use often leads to incongruities such as "the postman ... she". Gender should not be relevant to a job, except in very special instances, such as dormitory supervisors. Job titles which do not specify sex are more comprehensive, more accurate, and more consistent. For example, if a women is "New Zealand's top craftswoman', is she the best of only the women or the best artisan of all? Excluding men Excluding women in language is not the only problem. Just as women are excluded in occupational titles like "draughtsman", "tradesman", and "linesman", men are excluded in the titles of many traditionally female occupations. Examples are "midwife" and "matron". Job advertisements should not assume that the job will be filled by a person of a particular sex. Example Possible alternative cameraman camera operator cleaning lady cleaner draughtsman/draftsman drafting technician fireman firefighter foreman supervisor handyman maintenance worker postman mail carrier tea lady tea attendant or server Areas of difficulty The search for alternatives to occupational or professional titles which appear to exclude one or other sex runs into real difficulties when confronted with terms such as Visiting Fellow Bachelor's degree Master's degree Similarly with an occupational title such as "matron", "midwife", "ombudsman", "alderman", where a non-inclusive title is still used within the relevant profession. Obviously one cannot, in these cases, make a unilateral decision to alter such terms. 3. Irrelevant Gender Emphasis and Stereotyping Gender-linked prefixes and suffixes Suffixes, which are usually diminutive, are usually unnecessary in occupation titles. Generic terms are preferable. "Hostess", "poetess", "authoress", "usherette", "aviatrix", "executrix" are words combining the stem word, usually used alone for a man with a suffix. Some people (some actresses, for example) have individual preferences which should be respected, otherwise the stem word should be used for both women and men. Job titles that cannot be given a suffix are often prefixed with sex indicators. We hear of a "woman painter", a "woman lawyer", a "lady doctor". There is no apparent reason for this -- as with the practice of using suffixes, it implies maleness is the norm, and that women are "special cases". As the titles come from the verb, that is, a painter is one who paints, there is no need for further indicators. Gratuitous specification of age, race and ethnicity should also be avoided. In the following examples, unnecessary references are in italics: Mary Brown, a Maori, has been selected for the position. The lecturer, a middle-aged grandmother. A Chinese computer programmer. Should the sex, race or age of the person be essential to the account, it can of course be noted. Irrelevant gender references The use of sex indicators such as the suffixes 'ette' and 'ess', and the indicator 'lady' or 'woman' have been discussed. There are instances when the sex, marital status or number of children of a woman or man may be relevant. But, because of bias, they are commonly used in descriptions of women, but not of men. It is common for a woman to be written about in the style of the following example, but it seems odd when she is replaced with he! Carl Mann, aged 33, is an attractive blond father of three, and a top-flight executive. He manages to combine a successful banking career with family life. Carl, dressed for this interview in a blue suit, has a flair for interior decorating and his lovely home, shared with his accountant wife Sue, is a credit to his sharp attention to detail. Unless it is relevant to describe a woman's or a man's physical and/or sexual attributes, omit them. Women are often described as blonde or brunette, curvaceous or slim, or men as tall, dark or handsome, when such a description is unnecessary. Sex-linked adjectives Some sex-linked terms are meaningless when applied to the other sex. Saying that "pilots should be manly, intelligent and alert" rules women out, in this case from being pilots, and from behaviour which is seen as admirable and determined. The equivalent of "manly" is not "womanly". "Womanly" connotes attributes to a woman like persuasion, gentleness and patience, or implies she is dithering, illogical, cute or voluptuous. Applied to a man, it imputes weakness. It is not necessary to use sex-linked terms when alternatives are so readily available. They are also more exact. Alternatives for "manly" include "brave", "courageous", "determined", "righteous", "gracious", "noble". Stereotyping Do not assume that farmers, accountants, writers, painters, or anyone in a responsible position is necessarily always male. Steer clear of expressions that are implicitly sexist. Example Possible alternative Academics have wives and Academics have families children to support. to support. We are looking for an We are looking for an administrator who is his administrator with a own man. sense of independence and integrity. A faculty member and his Faculty members and their wife may attend. partners may attend. Other examples of stereotyping to be avoided are found in texts which assume that women are always wives and mothers and that men are breadwinners, or that all kindergarten teachers and childcare workers are women; and careers information brochures which assume that women are nurses and teachers and men are doctors, engineers and architects, or that women have no serious work interests outside the home. Women who don't comply with the stereotype of a passive female and men who don't conform to the image of an aggressive male are often described in a negative way. Examples Possible alternative a pushy woman a forceful woman a gossiping woman a talkative woman an effeminate man a gentle man an hysterical woman a woman who is upset an aggressive woman an assertive woman All of these may well be accurate descriptions, but all too often the stereotyped description is used unthinkingly. Instead of assuming that only women can be gentle, compassionate, sensitive, and only men can be decisive, logical, assertive, strong, or adventurous, think of all of those qualities as human rather than sex-based. Demeaning terms Some words used to refer to women, though widely accepted, are considered inappropriate, if not demeaning, by many people. The use of "lady" and "girl" is often demeaning. A female shop assistant should not be called a "salesgirl" as a male is not called a "salesboy". "Girl" should be used only where the person is still at school. If the woman has left secondary school, she should be called a "woman" or a "young woman". The use of "girl" is often synonymous with low status -- "calendar girl", "call girl", "girl Friday". More neutral terms are "model", "male or female escort" or "prostitute", "office assistant". The use of lady also often carries an implication of inferior status, stereotype, or patronisation, e.g. "saleslady", "tea lady", "cleaning lady". If a sex indication is relevant, "woman" can be used, otherwise there are alternatives such as "attendant", "cleaner". Example Possible alternative the girl in the office the secretary or typist three men and four girls three men and four women worked on the experiment worked on the experiment Master and maiden The word "master", like "mistress", originally meant one exerting control, as over a household. "Mistress" is now more commonly used to mean lover and sometimes teacher. Master is now used in a variety of ways, but still largely with the sense of power and control and, implicitly, maleness. Example Possible alternative English Master English Coordinator, senior teacher of English master leader, teacher, boss master the art become skilled master key, master copy pass key, original "Maiden" when used to mean a virgin, can be replaced with "virgin", which is generic. Words which imply marital status or sexual experience often also imply traditional values. Terms like "maiden aunt", "old maid" and "spinster" carry negative attitudes compared to those for unmarried men. They imply a woman has not reached her potential unless she has been married, whereas bachelors and widowers are often seen to be living a more exciting life than married men. The terms "single woman" or "single man" are thus preferable to "spinster" and "bachelor", if it is necessary to indicate marital status. In its meaning of untested, or having produced no results, as used in sport, the word "first" can replace "maiden": "first race", "first voyage", "first speech". The terms "surname at birth", "original name" or "former name" are preferable to "maiden name". 4. Status Equivalent terms Terms used for marriage and parenting can suggest men have higher status, and imply ownership as in "his wife and children". "Husband" and "wife" are equivalent terms, "man" and "wife" are not. The man is not always head of a household; indeed many would argue that the term "head of the household" should be abolished, as it fails to take into account the value of unpaid work (housework). Equivalent terms should also be used when addressing a group of people, or when talking about a man and a woman. It is often the case that a man is addressed by his surname, while a woman is called by her first name or given a title. Example Possible alternative Connors and Mrs Cawley Connors and Cawley Memo to Smith, Brown Memo to Smith, Brown and and Mrs Jones Jones Professor R. Garcia Professor R. Garcia and Dr Jane Jones Dr J. Jones Honorifics These should be used or referred to in a manner which treats everyone equally, regardless of sex. "Miss" and "Mrs" are indicators of both marital status and sex while "Mr" indicates sex only. The feminine equivalent of "Mr" is "Ms". As a general guide, a woman whose marital status is not known or who does not like it to be referred to where it is not relevant, should be called "Ms", the equivalent of "Mr" for men. A person's right to specify the manner in which they wish to be addressed should, however, be respected in reasonable circumstances. Correspondence Correspondence to women who are not named can be in the style "Dear Madam". Other alternatives are: (Where the name and gender are known) Dear Ms Jeffries (Where the name only is known) Dear Dale Jeffries (Where no name is known) Dear Assistant Secretary Correspondence to households, such as in large mailouts can be addressed to "Dear Householder". Correspondence signed in joint names should be replied to in a joint address. For example, a letter signed by "Mr and Mrs T. Smith" could be replied to with address "Dear Mrs and Mr Smith". A person's gender need not be assumed, e.g. Dear D. Jeffries. When compiling directories, full names are useful and preferred titles can be indicated. Housewives The work of housewives should not be depicted as if homemaking and, by implication, the person performing it, is not important -- as in the phrase "even a housewife can ...." Parenting and homemaking roles should be accorded worth and dignity. Men as well as women clean the house, buy the groceries and care for children, yet it is common to see statements such as: "Housewives are now paying more for groceries" or "The school sent a note home to mothers". Such attitudes assume men do not have an important role in the home and that it is a woman's ONLY role. An alternative term to "housewife" is "homemaker", or in the examples above "consumers" and "parents". "Homemakers" are women or men who do unpaid work at home. They are not people who do not work. Care should be taken, therefore, with terms like "working mother" and "working wife". The solution to such problems is to be more specific. For example, where a couple both do paid work -- and it should not be assumed all men do -- they could be described as a "two-income family". She is a "wage" or "salary earning woman". Note that if the context refers to a woman's capacity as a paid worker, her marital and parenting status are generally irrelevant. 5. Illustrations and Examples Advertisers, cartoonists, copywriters, photographers and people designing promotional displays often neglect to take fair and proper account of the presence of women. Women should be fairly represented in pictures and prose. Where they are included they are too often depicted in the home, segregated into the kitchen while men cut the grass or paint the guttering. These role divisions may be common, but they are not universal. As well as showing women and men doing non-traditional jobs, illustrations, displays, examples, etc. should also show men and women exhibiting non-traditional behaviour. Women and men are equally capable of a wide range of emotions and behaviour. When selecting photographs or other pictorial material to illustrate guides, handbooks or other documents, care should be taken to ensure that men and women are represented and that both are shown in positions of authority. For example, in a handbook intended for student use, it would be desirable to ensure both sexes are represented in photographs of the academic staff and of the students. 6. References to Animals and Things Except in specific references, such as "Cyclone Tracy", "Hurricane Max", things such as boats, cars, ships, hurricanes, countries, cities, the moon, the sun, the seasons, etc. should be referred to as "it", not "he" or "she". Alternatives to "Motherland" or "Fatherland" could be "native land", "land of one's birth", "homeland". Animals should be referred to as "it", unless the reference is to a specific male or female animal, e.g. "Phar Lap", "a gamecock" or a "queen bee". 7 Direct Quotation You may find yourself wanting to use a direct quotation which employs the false term "man", e.g. "Man is by nature a political animal" (Aristotle) or "My purpose was to imitate, and as far as possible, to adopt the very language of man" (Wordsworth). Is this sexist? Many people would say not, but others would distinguish between those direct quotations that are used to support statements about the particular person quoted (Wordsworth and his literary theory, for example) and those that are used to support general principles (that people are naturally political, for example). If you are troubled by the second type of usage, paraphrase or recast the material in an indirect quotation, as it is never acceptable practice to alter a direct quotation. 8. Offensive Expressions These are expressions in common use that may not be intended to give offence but can do so and should be avoided. These include, for example, "He's a real old woman" or "She's on Maori time again". 9. Clayton's Sexism Clayton's sexism is the sexism you practise when you're not being sexist. It is displayed by people who know what sexist usage is, but don't think it a serious problem. Although reluctant to be seen as impenitent sexists, they reveal their sexism nevertheless by mocking a caricature of non-sexist usage. For example: "He's very manly. Oops! Should I say personly?" Those who do not find this sort of thing amusing are accused of being humourless. Such jokes are not in keeping with a spirit of equality. Anything that could be listed with the following is probably best avoided: "With Margaret here, I'd better not use the word I was going to use." "Seeing we have an Equal Employment Opportunity policy, weld better make sure we breed equal numbers of male and female rats." "I'm still waiting for someone to sexually harass me." References Marshall, I. and Rowland, F. (1981) "Discriminatory language and attitudes", A Guide to Learning Independently Melbourne: Longman Cheshire. Miller, C. and Swift, K. (1980) The Handbook of Nonsexist Writing New York: Lippincott and Crowell. Miller, C. and Swift, K. (1981) Handbook of Non-Sexist Writing for Writers, Editors and Speakers London: The Women's Press. APPENDICES 1. Some Useful References Australia Style Manual for Authors, Editors and Printers 1988) 4th edition, Canberra: AGPS. Bodine, A. (1975) "Androcentrism in prescriptive grammar: singular they, sex-indefinite he and he or she" Language in Society 4, 129-146. Davies, B. (1983) Towards Non-Sexist Language Melbourne: FAUSA Affirmative Action Committee. Deakin University Inclusive Language Guidelines. Fesl, E.D. (1987) "How the English language is used to put Koories down, deny us rights or is employed as a political tool against us", Aboriginal Research Centre, Monash University. Miller, C. and Swift, K. (1976) Words and Women Garden City, NY: Doubleday. Monash University Language Guidelines. office of the Status of Women (1983) Fair Exposure: Guidelines for the Constructive and Positive Portrayal and Presentation of Women in the Media Canberra: AGPS. Office of the Status of Women (1985) Style manual for authors, editors and printers (4th ed.) Canberra: AGPS. Pauwels, A. (1987) "Language in transition: A study of the title 'Ms' in contemporary Australian society", in A. Pauwels (ed) Women, Language and Society in Australian and New Zealand society Sydney: Australian Professional Publications, 129-154. Smith, P.M. (1985) Language, the Sexes and Society Oxford: Basil Blackwell. Spender, D. (1980) Man Made Language London: Routledge and Kegan Paul. Standing Committee on Spoken English (1984) Non-sexist language guidelines Australian Broadcasting Commission. Thorne, B., Kramarae, C. and Henley, N. (1983) Language, Gender and Society Rowley, Mass.: Newbury House. (Includes an annotated bibliography) The University of Melbourne (1987) A Guide to Gender-Neutral Speech and Writing. The University of Queensland (1988) A Guide for the Use of Non-Sexist Language. The University of Western Australia Achieving Non-Discriminatory Language: A Guide. 2 Miller and Swift on the Generic He "God send everyone their heart's desire." Most people are taught in school that the above sentence is ungrammatical. It should be corrected, we are told, to read "God send everyone his heart's desire." Use of the pronouns "he", "his", and "him" to refer to any unspecified or hypothetical person who may be either female or male is usually justified on two grounds. First, the practice is said to be an ancient rule of English grammar long and faithfully followed by educated speakers and writers. Second, it is asserted -- somewhat paradoxically if the usage is thought to distinguish the educated from the uneducated -- that everybody knows he includes she in generalisations. Historical and psychological research in the past few years has produced evidence to refute both claims. Historical background The first grammars of modern English were written in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. They were mainly intended to help boys from well-to-do families prepare for the study of Latin, a language most scholars considered superior to English. The male authors of these earliest English grammars wrote for male readers in an age when few women were literate. The masculine-gender pronouns they used in grammatical examples and generalisations did not reflect a belief that masculine pronouns could refer to both sexes. They reflected the reality of male cultural dominance and the male-centred world view that resulted. Males were perceived as the standard representatives of the human species, females as something else. Although the early grammarians examined many aspects of their native tongue and framed innumerable rules governing its use, their writings contain no statement to the effect that masculine pronouns are sex-inclusive when used in general references. Not until the eighteenth century did a "rule" mandating such usage appear in an English grammar book, and non until the nineteenth century was it widely taught. Present-day linguists, tracing the history of the so-called generic "he", have found that it was invented and prescribed by the grammarians themselves in an attempt to change long-established English usage. The object of the grammarians' intervention was the widespread acceptance of "they" as a singular pronoun, as in Lord Chesterfield's remark (1759), "If a person is born of a gloomy temper ... they cannot help it." Nearly three centuries earlier, England's first printer, William Caxton, had written, "Each of them should ... make themself ready", and the invocation "God send everyone their heart's desire" is from Shakespeare. In such usages, grammarians argued, they lacked the important syntactical feature of agreement in number with a singular antecedent. But in prescribing he as the alternative, they dismissed as unimportant a lack of agreement in gender with a feminine antecedent. In 1850 an Act of Parliament gave official sanction to the recently invented concept of the "generic" he. In the language used in acts of Parliament, the new law said, "words importing the masculine gender shall be deemed and taken to include females". Although similar language in contracts and other legal documents subsequently helped reinforce this grammatical edict in all English-speaking countries, it was often conveniently ignored. In 1879, for example, a move to admit female physicians to the all-male Massachusetts Medical Society was effectively blocked on the grounds that the society's by-laws describing membership used the pronoun "he". Current usage "The [copy] editor's duties are, in general, twofold. First, he (more often she) tries to carry out the author's wishes and edit the manuscript to his satisfaction ..." -- A publisher's style manual As a linguistic device imposed on the language rather than a natural development arising from a broad consensus, "generic" he is fatally flawed. This fact has been demonstrated in several recent systematic investigations of how people of both sexes use and understand personal pronouns. The studies confirm that in spoken usage -- from the speech of young children to the conversation of university professors -- he is rarely intended or understood to include she. On the contrary, at all levels of education people whose native tongue is English seem to know that "he", "him", and "his" are gender-specific and cannot do the double duty asked of them. This failure of masculine-gender pronouns to represent everyone becomes clear when, as in the example above, the referent of the pronoun is likely to be a woman. "She" is usually used in generalisations about secretaries, nurses, preschool teachers, baby-sitters and shoppers, for example. Theoretically "he" should always work, but the inclination to switch to she in some cases demonstrates that the masculine-gender pronoun is felt to be either inadequate or ridiculous. Why? Because grammarians to the contrary, "he" brings a male image to mind, and it does so whether editors, authors, nomads, or acrobats are the subject. Like "generic" "man", "generic" "he" fosters the misconception that the standard human being is male. One measure of people's interest in the generic pronoun problem was the response to a nationally syndicated article on the subject by the columnist Tom Wicker, who reported that it brought "the greatest single outpouring of mail" he had ever received. Probably a better measure is the explosive increase in alternatives to "generic" he in all media. More and more writers and speakers seem to agree with the feeling expressed by psychologist Wendy Martyna, who wrote, "'He' deserves to live out its days doing what it has always done best -- referring to 'he' and not 'she'." Solving Pronoun Problems They as a Singular: "I corrected a boy for writing 'no one ... they' instead of 'no one ... he', explaining that 'no one' was singular. But he said, 'How do you know it was a he?'" - A teacher Children can be very logical. Although to some educated adults using they as a singular pronoun is like committing a crime, youngsters use it freely until someone convinces them they shouldn't. Most people, when writing and speaking informally, also rely on singular they as a matter of course, and so have many noted writers: "Every person ... now recovered their liberty." - Oliver Goldsmith "Nobody prevents you, do they?" - William Makepeace Thackeray "I shouldn't like to punish anyone, even if they'd done me wrong." - George Eliot "... everyone shall delight us, and we them." - Walt Whitman "Now, nobody does anything well that they cannot help doing." - John Ruskin "It's enough to drive anyone out of their senses." - George Bernard Shaw "[H]e did not believe it rested anybody to lie with their head high ..." - Elizabeth Bowen "You do not have to understand someone in order to love them." - Lawrence Durrell "And how easy the way a man or woman would come in here, glance around, find smiles and pleasant looks waiting for them, then wave and sit down by themselves." - Doris Lessing Everyday examples abound: "Everyone raised their voice in song" "If you have a friend or relative who would like to join, have them fill out the coupon below and make their check payable to ... " "Anyone using the beach after 5 P.M. does so at their own risk." Once upon a time you was a plural pronoun only. It assumed its singular function (replacing thou) in the days before prescriptive grammarians were around to inhibit that kind of change. English needs a comparable third-person singular pronoun, and for many "they" meets the need. Those who cannot bring themselves to use "they" in place of "he" sometimes produce sentences like: "Nevertheless, everyone, the fastidious queen included, resigned himself sooner or later." In another example, an article reporting that "Eudora Welty and Robert Penn Warren were featured luminaries of a Forum on Southern Writing" went on to say that "Each author also presented an evening of readings from his own works." In the first case, where the import of everyone is clearly plural, the phrase "resigned themselves" would be less jarring. In the second, "their own works" would convey equal billing more smoothly and at the same time avoid the gaffe of misrepresenting Welty's sex. In still another instance a well-known author wrote: "[A] man or woman must learn to feel an emotional response before he is ready to undertake the dreadfully difficult problem of giving his love, his heart, to a being of the human kind." Although the sexually inclusive image would have been sustained if the sentence had read [A] man or woman must learn to feel an emotional response before they are ready to undertake the dreadfully difficult problem of giving their love ... perhaps the smell of chalk dust was so inhibiting in this case that recasting the sentence from scratch was the writer's only alternative. (From The handbook of nonsexist writing, by Casey Miller and Kate Swift NY: Lippincott and Crowell, pp35-41.) GLOSSARY OF ALTERNATIVES TO NON-INCLUSIVE TERMS Note that these alternatives are not the only possibilities. Individual writers and editors with thought and ingenuity, will no doubt think of others. Example Alternative ancient man ancient civilisation, ancient people authoress author, writer average housewife average consumer, average household, average homemaker average man average person average working man average wage earner or taxpayer aviatrix aviator brotherhood of man humanity, humankind businessmen business men and women, business people, executives, business community, entrepreneurs, financiers calendar girl model call girl female or male escort, prostitute or sex worker cameraman camera operator chairman chair, convener, president, head, chairperson churchman cleric, practising Christian, pillar of the Church (as appropriate) cleaning lady cleaner English Master English Coordinator, senior teacher of English Englishmen (meaning the the English race as a whole) executrix executor fireman fire fighter, fire officer foreman supervisor founding fathers founders Frenchmen (meaning the the French race as a whole) girl Friday assistant hostess host housemaid house worker, domestic help housewife homemaker lady doctor doctor leading lady female lead maiden virgin maiden race, voyage, first race, first voyage, speech first speech maiden name surname at birth, original name or former name man a desk staff a desk man and mankind humanity, people, the human race man hours work or labour hours, hours man in the street ordinary citizen, typical person man on the land farmer, rural worker, grazier, landowner, rural community, country people, country folk man the phones answer the phones man's best friend a faithful dog man-made synthetic, artificial, handmade, handcrafted manhunt large police hunt or search manly brave, courageous, determined, righteous, gracious, noble (not womanly) manpower labour, labour force or work force, human resources, personnel or staffing, combat personnel (military) a man-sized task a demanding task, a big job master leader, teacher, boss master key, master copy pass key, original master the art become skilled mice and men, best laid plans can go wrong plans of midwife birthing nurse modern, industrial or modern, industrial or ancient ancient man people or civilisation Motherland or Fatherland native land, land of one's birth, homeland no man's land unoccupied territory, wasteland pioneering forefathers pioneering forebears poetess poet policeman/woman police officer postman mail carrier, mail deliverer railwayman railway worker salesman/lady shop assistant, sales attendant, salesperson seamstress sewer, mender spokesman spokesperson, representative, official, speaking on behalf sportsmanship fairness, good humour, sense of fair play sportsmen sportsmen and women; where applicable, athletes, gymnasts, or whatever. statesman 'stateswoman' may be used. An alternative preferred for both is an 'expert in affairs of state', 'an eminent person'. 'Statesman-like' may be 'diplomatic'. stockman cattle worker, farmhand, drover (as applicable) tea lady tea attendant or server tradesman's entrance service entrance tax man tax commissioner, tax office, tax collector; or in some contexts, paying tax usherette usher woman lawyer lawyer woman painter painter working mother/wife wage or salary earning woman workman worker, tradesperson Avoid Consider A student should present Students should present his work. their work. A student should present his or her work. Work should be presented by the student. Present your work. When a student is When students are qualified, qualified, he may apply they may apply for admission. for admission. When a student is qualified, he or she may apply for admission. Qualified students may apply for admission. When you are qualified, you may apply for admission. The lecturer will display Lecturers will display their his timetable. timetables. The student must inform A student must inform the his tutor. tutor. The client is usually the The best judge of the value best judge of the value of counselling is usually of his counselling. the client. Anyone who wants his Those who want their work work evaluated their work evaluated ...